EU Drug Market: Cannabis — Trafficking and supply

This resource is part of EU Drug Market: Cannabis — In-depth analysis by the EMCDDA and Europol.

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Last update: November 2023

Record quantities seized in 2021

Since 2012, the number of seizures of herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway has exceeded that of cannabis resin, suggesting that herbal cannabis is the most-consumed illicit cannabis product in Europe. Trends in both cannabis resin and herbal cannabis seizure numbers remained relatively stable between 2012 and 2019 (see Figure Trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2011-2021).

In 2020, however, the number of cannabis resin seizures in the EU fell by 73 % to 86 500, from a total of 323 000 in 2019. This abrupt drop is likely a result of the impact of the measures implemented to control the COVID-19 pandemic, including lockdowns, use of law enforcement resources to implement lockdowns rather than police drug markets, and the suspension of shipping lines between Morocco and Spain between in mid-March 2020 and early April 2022 (EMCDDA 2021a). The number of herbal cannabis seizures also decreased in 2020, but only by 16 %, from 287 000 in 2019 to 240 000 in 2020 (see Figure Trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2011-2021; see also Section Trends in seizures of cannabis products: COVID-19 strongly impacts seizures of cannabis resin).

In contrast, the quantities of both herbal cannabis and resin seized in the EU reached record levels in 2021, amounting to 256 tonnes of herb, an all-time record, and about 816 tonnes of resin, the largest quantity seized since 2008. In 2021, the quantity of cannabis resin seized was more than three times that of herbal cannabis (see Figures Quantity of herbal cannabis seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021 and Quantity of cannabis resin seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021).

A relatively small number of countries account for a large proportion of the total amount of cannabis seized in Europe. This is likely due to their strategic location on major cannabis trafficking routes, their comparatively large consumer markets, or the presence of large-scale domestic cannabis production. Spain, the main entry point for cannabis resin produced in Morocco and a large producer of cannabis plants, reported seizing 672.5 tonnes of cannabis resin in 2021, that is, over 82 % of the EU total that year. Non-routine data reported by the European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) also suggest that Spain remained the country that seized the greatest quantity of resin in Europe in 2022 (Frontex, 2023). After Spain, the largest seizures of cannabis resin in the EU in 2021 were reported by France (72.5 tonnes) and Italy (20 tonnes), indicating that these countries continue to be major entry points, although some of drugs seized in France and Italy may have transited through Spain first. Türkiye, which seized the third largest amount of cannabis resin in Europe in 2021 (33 tonnes), and has cited Morocco as a source in previous years (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019), may now also be a significant entry point (see Figure Quantity of cannabis resin seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021).

Spain also reported the largest quantity of herbal cannabis seized in the EU in 2021, confiscating 130 tonnes, or about 51 % of the EU total, which represents a 117 % increase compared to 2020. Italy (47 tonnes) and France (39.5 tonnes), together seized more than a third of the EU total (see Figure Quantity of herbal cannabis seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021).

In terms of the number of seizures, in 2021 there were an estimated 296 000 individual seizures of herbal cannabis and 217 000 seizures of cannabis resin in the EU, Türkiye and Norway. This represents a 2 % increase in seizures of herbal and a 114 % increase in seizures of resin. This more than doubling of resin seizures between 2020 and 2021 is worth noting. However, the total number of European cannabis resin seizures in 2021 still remains below the levels observed before 2020, the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, when they numbered around 300 000 annually. In 2021, Spain continued to report the largest number of herbal cannabis seizures (139 000), representing almost half of the European total (45 %). Türkiye reported the second largest number, 52 500 seizures, or 18 % of the European total, while Belgium ranked third, with 30 000, or about 10 % of the total.

Although most of the herbal cannabis consumed in the EU is likely to have been produced in the EU, as already discussed, the Western Balkan region appears to remain a significant source of herbal cannabis trafficked to the European market (see Section Herbal cannabis production outside the EU).

Western Balkan countries are also important suppliers of cannabis to other countries in the region and to Türkiye. Albania was considered a major non-EU source of herbal cannabis destined for the European market prior to 2018 (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019), but since then neighbouring countries such as Greece, Italy and North Macedonia report substantial reductions in the seizure of Albanian-origin cannabis (UNODC, 2020). Although the available information suggests an increase in production in other Western Balkan countries, no intensification in cross-border cannabis trafficking has been noted to date. Nevertheless, cannabis trafficking routes to the EU and neighbouring countries appear to remain active (Brnad, 2022). Some of the Western Balkan criminal networks involved in cannabis trafficking into, and production within, the EU also appear to be associated with the wholesale trafficking of cocaine to Europe (EMCDDA, 2022d; Bureau for Operational Coordination of Montenegro, 2021; Europol, 2021b).

Herbal cannabis trafficked from the Western Balkans to the EU appears to be transported primarily by land, for instance to Hungary (Reitox National Focal Point of Hungary, 2020; Ljubas, 2020) and Croatia (Ministry of Interior of Croatia, 2019). It is also trafficked by sea, to Italy, Greece and Türkiye (EMCDDA, 2022d; Daily Sabah, 2021). Approximately 48 % of the herbal cannabis seized in Greece in 2020 was thought to be of Albanian origin, a decrease in relation to previous years’ figures (62 % in 2018 and 71 % in 2017) (Brnad, 2022; Hellenic Police, 2020). Herbal cannabis trafficking to Italy also appears to have fallen in recent years, as indicated by seizure data and fewer interceptions of speedboats crossing the Adriatic Sea (Halili, 2021; Ministry of Interior of Italy, 2021). Nevertheless, maritime routes continue to be used, as suggested by the recent seizure of 1 tonne of herbal cannabis from a sailboat and speedboats off the coast of Vlorë, Albania, in August 2022, with the drugs likely intended for sale in Italy (Velaj, 2022).

Multiple types of cannabis products may also be trafficked from the Western Balkans in one consignment. For example, in February 2020, Italian authorities seized 450 kilograms of herbal cannabis, 75 kilograms of cannabis resin and 3.5 litres of cannabis oil in the same shipment from Albania. In April 2020, Italian law enforcement arrested two Italian nationals for smuggling 646 kilograms of herbal cannabis and 250 kilograms of cannabis resin from Albania (Guardia di Finanza, 2020; Kote, 2020). The Western Balkan region appears to be a small but not insignificant transhipment point for cannabis resin. There are also indications that the production of cannabis oil occurs in the region, with a potential impact on the EU, as illustrated by drug seizures (EMCDDA, 2022d).

In a limited number of instances, cannabis trafficking from the Western Balkans appears to have been conducted via small aircraft (Brnad, 2022; City News Albania, 2021; Ljubas, 2020) and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/drones) (Vijesti, 2022). In addition, based on recent seizures, intermodal transport routes should be monitored. In April 2021, for example, 4 tonnes of cannabis resin was seized at the port of Piraeus, Greece, in a container that had arrived from Lebanon. According to the documentation, the container was to be transferred to a train and taken through North Macedonia, Serbia and Hungary, with Slovakia as its final destination (The Maritime Executive, 2021).

Türkiye also appears to be a key destination for herbal cannabis trafficked from the Western Balkans. There are also indications that cannabis from the region may sometimes be exchanged in Türkiye for heroin (Brnad, 2022; Mejdini and Amerhauser, 2019; Sinoruka, 2022) or cocaine (US Department of State, 2022).

There are also examples of cannabis products being trafficked from the EU to the Western Balkans. For example, cannabis seedlings from the EU may have been transported to the Western Balkans for cultivation. In January 2022, Croatian police seized 1 096 cannabis seedlings at the border with Montenegro from a truck bound for North Macedonia (Brnad, 2022; Ministry of Interior of Croatia, 2022). In June 2022, Spanish police dismantled an organised criminal network cultivating cannabis destined for several European markets, including in Serbia (Spanish News Today, 2022).

Trafficking cannabis products within the EU

Although herbal cannabis is produced in every EU Member State, local cultivation may not be enough to satisfy local demand, resulting in the trafficking of herbal cannabis between EU Member States. Some of the cannabis produced in the EU is also trafficked externally, albeit to lesser extent.

Cannabis trafficking routes within the EU are diverse, intersecting all Member States and complicating interdiction (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019). For example, although cannabis produced in the Netherlands is thought to be largely destined for the Dutch user market, it is also transported to countries including Belgium, France, Germany and Italy as well as EU Member States in northern Europe (Europol information; National Police of the Netherlands, 2022). At the same time, alongside Spain and Italy, the Netherlands is also a destination or transit country for cannabis products trafficked from other European countries or from countries outside Europe, such as Canada, Morocco or the United States (Rigter and Oomen, 2020, 2021) (see Box Netherweed’, ‘Euroweed’ or ‘USweed’?).

Cannabis resin and herbal cannabis are moved within the EU using broadly the same infrastructure and taking similar routes, mostly by land. Distribution occurs mainly by road, using passenger vehicles or lorries, transporting the drugs from entry points and cultivation sites, either directly to the consumer markets or via the main distribution hubs (such as Spain and the Netherlands). In these major hubs, cannabis may be temporarily stored prior to distribution. Criminal organisations maintain a wide network of facilitators in these hubs ensuring the transportation and further distribution of cannabis across the EU.

In addition, parcels and letters have recently become an important channel for intra-European cannabis trafficking. This development may be linked to sales on darknet or other online markets. Data collected in mail centres in 27 countries, including 18 EU countries, Norway and Türkiye, indicate that a total of 3.75 tonnes of cannabis products was seized in parcels and letters entering, leaving or transiting Europe in 2021. This represents a 9 % increase compared to 2020 and a 118 % increase in relation to 2019. Cannabis accounted for 25 % of all reported drug seizures in parcels and letters in 2021. Notably, 90 % of cannabis seizures were made from parcels or letters sent from one European country to another, with the majority of the remaining seizures being from parcels and letters sent from Canada and the United States to Europe. Spain is reported as the European country from which most parcels and letters containing cannabis products were sent in 2021 (COE Pompidou Group and RILO WE, 2022).

Trafficking herbal cannabis

Twelve EU countries reported the origin of seizures of herbal cannabis in the 2019-2021 period. Almost all of these named Spain as an origin or transit country. Meanwhile, Spain reported most European countries as destinations for herbal cannabis shipped from Spain. Increased domestic production in the country (see Section Herbal cannabis production in the EU and Figure Quantity of cannabis plants seized in the EU, 2011-2021) and the involvement of a broad range of criminal networks, featuring diverse nationalities, are likely to be key explanations as to why Spain now appears to be the main exporter of herbal cannabis to the rest of Europe. Most herbal cannabis shipments from Spain are transported by land, while some are trafficked by sea to Ireland and the United Kingdom.

In addition to Spain, but less frequently so, Germany, France, Italy and the Netherlands are reported as origin or transit countries for seized herbal cannabis in the EU. Increasing amounts of herbal products smuggled from North America are also seized in Europe (RILO WE, 2020, 2022, 2023) (see also Section Other cannabis consumer products: concentrates, edibles and vaping products).

Wholesale price data for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are available for about one third of all EU Member States. Wholesale prices for the two products are similar, with a kilogram of herbal cannabis and a kilogram of cannabis resin both costing an average of EUR 3 000 - 4 000 in the EU. Trends in average wholesale prices suggest that this has been the case since about 2017 (see Figures Trend in mean wholesale price of herbal cannabis in the EU, 2016-2021 and Trend in mean wholesale price of cannabis resin in the EU, 2016-2021). Prices for herbal cannabis tend to be lower closer to source countries or large distribution hubs. This is reflected in the lowest mean prices per kilogram being reported by Spain (EUR 1 796), Italy (EUR 2 855) and Belgium (EUR 4 611).

Trafficking cannabis resin to and within the EU

Most of the cannabis resin available on the European drug market comes from Morocco and enters the region via Spain, which seized 672.5 tonnes of cannabis resin in 2021 (over 82 % of the European total). There may have been some diversification in trafficking routes and methods in the last few years. For instance, data reported by Frontex (2023) indicate that relatively large amounts of resin were seized in Greece, Italy and Hungary in 2022.

Various modes of transportation are used to traffic cannabis resin to the EU, including lorries on ferries, maritime shipping containers and recreational and fishing boats. Speedboats that can transport up to 3 tonnes of drugs also continue to be used, despite restrictions imposed by the Spanish government in October 2018 (see Box Dedicated network providing cannabis traffickers in Spain with boats).

In 2022, for the first time, Spain seized unmanned semi-submersible vessels that were intended for transporting drugs, including cannabis resin, to the European coast (see Box Semi-submersible drones seized in Spain).

In addition, small private aircraft, helicopters and aerial drones are used to transport cannabis resin between Morocco and Spain, as well as for intra-EU drug trafficking (see Box Aerial drones and helicopters now used to traffic cannabis in Europe).

Trafficking cannabis oil

Cannabis oil is a dark green or dark brown viscous liquid (see Figure Cannabis: taxonomy of products traditional and modern). When produced from resin it may be called hash oil. Trafficking cannabis oil instead of herbal cannabis or cannabis resin may be attractive to traffickers because more psychoactive material can be contained in a smaller quantity of product. It may also be easier to conceal.

The monitoring of seizure data on cannabis oil only began in 2014, and it has rarely been mentioned in national reports to the EMCDDA. When monitoring started, 11 countries reported seizing a total of 124 kilograms, with Spain accounting for most of this. Overall, Belgium, Italy and Spain reported the largest quantities of oil seized over the 2015-2021 period. A peak was reached in 2018, when 359 kilograms was seized, mostly due to large seizures in Belgium and Italy. This was followed, however, in 2019 by the lowest total amount of oil seizures in Europe, possibly due to an absence of reporting from Belgium, which usually reports large seizures of oil. In 2021, seizures increased again, reaching a total of 247 kilograms, with Spain reporting the largest quantity seized in Europe (see Figure Quantity of cannabis oil seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2015-2021). The origin of the oil seized in Europe is not reported, although there are three likely sources for it: Morocco, the Western Balkans (particularly Albania), or production sites in the EU using locally cultivated cannabis or locally produced cannabis resin.

Source data

References

Consult the list of references used in this module.