EU Drug Market: Cannabis — Retail markets
This resource is part of EU Drug Market: Cannabis — In-depth analysis by the EMCDDA and Europol.
Cannabis has become more affordable for European consumers
The affordability of drugs is a measure that incorporates drug purity or potency and accounts for differing national economic conditions, as quantified in the price level indices (see Groshkova et al., 2018). Using affordability as a measure allows a more sophisticated comparison of retail drug markets across countries and over time. Based on EMCDDA retail price and potency data for 12 EU Member States (1), 1 gram of cannabis resin became on average 25 % more affordable between 2015 and 2021 (see Figure Trends in average affordability of cannabis resin in a group of 12 EU Member States, 2015-2021).
Note: The twelve EU countries represented here are Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden, together accounting for about 58 % of the EU population in 2021 (Eurostat, 2022). Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
A similar picture emerges for herbal cannabis, where, based on EMCDDA retail price and potency data for 16 Member State (2), 1 gram of herbal cannabis became on average 20 % more affordable between 2015 and 2021 (see Figure Trends in average affordability of herbal cannabis in a group of 16 EU Member States, 2015-2021).
Note: The sixteen EU countries represented here are Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czechia, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden, together accounting for 78 % of the EU population in 2021 (Eurostat, 2022). Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Cannabis potency: resin increases at much faster pace than herb
Data reported to the EMCDDA indicate that the average potency of herbal cannabis in the EU increased by 57 % between 2011 and 2021, while its retail price remained largely stable over the same period. This is despite the slight price increase in 2020 (up 9 % from 2019), likely due to the effects of COVID-19 on the supply of cannabis to some consumer markets (see Figure Indexed trends in price and potency of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, 2011-2021) (EMCDDA and Europol, 2020). In 2021, the typical retail price of herbal cannabis in the EU ranged between EUR 8 and EUR 12 per gram, while the typical potency of retail-level herbal cannabis products ranged between 7 % and 13 % (EMCDDA, 2023b).
A marked increase in the potency of cannabis resin was observed between 2011 and 2021, with the average THC content of resin products at the retail level increasing by 191 %. Meanwhile the retail price of resin products has, on average, remained stable during the same 10-year period. This is despite the slight impact on resin prices due to the COVID-19 pandemic (see Figure Indexed trends in price and potency of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, 2011-2021) (EMCDDA and Europol, 2020). In 2021, a gram of cannabis resin in the EU typically contained between 12 % and 29 % THC and cost in the range of EUR 6 to EUR 10 (EMCDDA, 2023b).
Several developments already raised in this report have likely contributed to the increase in resin potency. These include the introduction of new cannabis strains and new cultivation and resin extraction techniques in Morocco (see Section Cannabis resin production outside the EU). In addition, it is also possible that the amount of high-potency cannabis resin produced in Europe is increasing. These recent trends seem to confirm a finding reported in the previous edition of this report (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019), namely that cannabis resin may have become a more attractive product to some consumers in the EU, especially for those who seek high-potency cannabis products.
Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Trends in European cannabis retail markets
Cannabis: in spite of COVID-19, several indicators point to overall stability in Europe’s largest drug market
Data on the prevalence of cannabis use, expressed in estimated numbers of users during the last year, may be viewed as an indicator of the location and approximate size of retail markets. Historically, cannabis has been the most used illicit drug in Europe, with currently around 84 million adults in the European Union (aged 15-64), or 29.3 % of this age group estimated to have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. As is the case with other drugs, the majority of cannabis users in Europe are males, who on average are twice as likely to report use as females.
Overall, the prevalence of cannabis use in Europe appears to have remained stable over the past decade, although prevalence of use has increased in some of the countries that already had the highest rates of use, such as Croatia, Czechia, the Netherlands and Spain. Recent trends based on data from 15 countries that have conducted surveys on last-year cannabis use since 2019 indicate that levels of use have increased in four countries, remained stable in six countries and decreased in five countries.
The COVID-19 pandemic does not seem to have impacted overall levels of cannabis use in Europe. However, it appears to have affected patterns of use, with more frequent herbal cannabis users consuming more and infrequent users consuming less, on average. This trend was less marked for cannabis resin (see Section How cannabis products are retailed in Europe).
The most recent data available on last-year use indicate that the largest retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin continue to be located in western and southern Europe. Specifically, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain, which together represent about 61.5 % of the total EU population (Eurostat, 2022), accounted for about 72 % of Europe’s estimated 22.6 million last-year cannabis users (aged 15-64) in 2021. For comparison, that is six times the number of last-year users of Europe’s second-most consumed drug, cocaine, estimated at some 3.5 million people in 2021 (EMCDDA and Europol, 2022). Young adults (15-34) make up the majority of last-year cannabis users in Europe, representing an estimated 15.8 million people in 2021.
Europe’s two largest illicit cannabis retail markets are likely in France and Italy, with an estimated 4.6 million and 3.9 million people aged 15-64 years, respectively, reporting last-year cannabis use. Germany and Spain follow, with 3.8 million and 3.3 million estimated users, respectively. Lower levels of last-year use are generally observed in the central and eastern part of the EU, with the exception of Croatia and Czechia where prevalence rates are among Europe’s highest. In terms of estimated total numbers of cannabis users, Czechia and Poland appear to be the largest retail markets in the Eastern part of the EU, with an estimated 0.9 million and 0.7 million people aged 15-64, respectively, reporting use in the last year.
It is estimated that around 3.7 million (1.3 %) adults use cannabis daily or almost daily in the EU – that is, they have used a cannabis product on 20 days or more in the last month. The majority of daily cannabis users are concentrated in five EU countries: France, Germany, Italy, Portugal and Spain.
Cannabis prevalence data do not discriminate between the different products used. However, the 2021 European Web Survey on Drugs (EWSD) found that herbal cannabis was used by 95 % of respondents who used cannabis in the last 12 months, compared with 32 % for cannabis resin, 25 % for edibles and 17 % for extracts (see Section How cannabis products are retailed in Europe). These proportions are indicative as the EWSD is not representative of the entire European population.
In wastewater analysis, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far, although it is excreted in low percentages (Causanilles et al., 2017). There are several challenges and uncertainties in the wastewater analysis of THC-COOH, related to factors such as the analytical measurements and poorly understood excretion rates (Bijlsma et al., 2020). In addition, this type of analysis is not able to discriminate between the different cannabis products consumed. Overall, research to develop alternative biomarkers is needed and caution is required when interpreting trends based on THC-COOH loads in wastewater.
A stable or decreasing trend in the THC-COOH loads was observed for almost all of the 23 cities with available data for the 2018-2021 period. In particular, no visible impact of COVID-19 was observed in levels of THC-COOH in 2020 compared to previous years. However, in 2021, more than two-fifths of cities (13 out of 31) reported higher THC-COOH loads in wastewater samples than in 2020.
The THC-COOH loads observed in wastewater in 2022 indicate that cannabis use was highest in western and southern European cities, in particular the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain, but also in Czechia. Furthermore, there were diverging trends with 18 cities out of 38 reporting a decrease in THC-COOH loads in wastewater samples and 15 an increase (see Figure Relative geographical distribution of cannabis metabolite (THC-COOH) as detected in European cities, 2022 (daily mean)). In countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found in the THC-COOH loads when comparing large and small cities. Wastewater analysis can also detect fluctuations in patterns of illicit drug use across the week. Overall, cannabis (THC-COOH) was found to be distributed evenly over the whole week.
In summary, the wastewater data indicate that, unlike the use of other drugs, such as cocaine (EMCDDA, 2022a), the European cannabis market is relatively stable overall since THC-COOH is present in both large and small urban areas and evidence of use is distributed evenly over the week.
Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
A further data source pointing to overall stability in the cannabis market is that of treatment demand for cannabis use problems. Based on the data available from 25 countries, the numbers entering specialised drug treatment for cannabis problems in Europe remained stable between 2016 and 2019. On average, 106 000 clients entered treatment for cannabis problems every year during those four years. Similarly, an average of 58 000 people a year entered treatment for the first time in their lives during that period, with a 1.2 % increase in 2019 compared to 2016.
However, the number of treatment entrants declined noticeably in 2020. This is indicative of how the COVID-19 pandemic affected treatment provision and demand as well as the monitoring of these services across Europe. The result was a significant decrease of about 20 % in reported numbers entering treatment, both for the first time and those returning to treatment (see Figure Trends in first-time entrants for treatment related to problems with cannabis use, 2016-2021).
While the numbers entering treatment increased slightly in 2021, they still remained below the 2016-2019 levels. The lack of rebound in treatment entries for cannabis problems in 2021 to pre-pandemic levels may be related to several factors. First, further COVID-19 waves were reported in 2021, followed by lockdowns in several EU Member States to prevent the spread of the virus. As a consequence, help-seeking and the ability to access services remained subdued. In addition, services continued to operate within strict infection prevention conditions, which reduced treatment capacity and intake. The data available may also mask a greater use of tele-medicine during this period, which was not captured by the treatment demand indicator. Finally, there may have also been a natural reduction in treatment demand due to reduced use of cannabis during the pandemic among some groups.
Note: Trends in first-time entrants are based on data from 25 countries. Only countries with data for at least five of the six years are included in the trends analysis. Missing values are interpolated from adjacent years. Because of disruptions to services due to COVID-19, data for 2020 and 2021 should be interpreted with caution. Missing data were imputed from values for the previous year for Spain and France (2021) and Germany (2019). Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Trends in the number of seizures of cannabis products: COVID-19 strongly impacts seizures of cannabis resin
Trends in the number of seizures may be viewed as an indirect indicator of changes in a drug’s availability, although they primarily reflect law enforcement activity (including resource availability, allocation and priorities). Since 2012 the total number of herbal cannabis seizures in Europe has exceeded those involving resin, and this continued to be the case in 2021. This appears to confirm that herbal cannabis is more widely consumed than cannabis resin in Europe.
The majority of seizures of the two main cannabis products reported in Europe, namely herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, are probably confiscated on retail markets since they involve amounts of 100 grams or less. Among the seizures reported by 14 EU Member States in 2021 that provided a breakdown by market levels (wholesale, middle market and retail), an estimated 77 % of all the 144 000 herbal cannabis seizures and 61 % of all the 108 000 cannabis resin seizures occurred at the retail level.
A notable stability can be observed in the number of seizures of cannabis resin both at EU level and in the seven largest retail markets between 2011 and 2019, and with regard to herbal cannabis between 2015 and 2019 (see Figures Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2011-2021 and Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in five EU countries, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021). In a context of consistently high drug availability at the retail level, a finite, but constant, level of law enforcement resources deployed to police illicit cannabis markets has likely influenced the relative stability in numbers of seizures. It is therefore probable that if more, or less, law enforcement resources were available to police these retail markets, seizure trends would vary commensurately.
Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Note: The five EU countries represented here are Belgium, Denmark, Italy, Spain and Sweden, together accounting for about 30 % of the EU population in 2020 (Eurostat, 2022). Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Number of seizures of traditional cannabis products in 2021: impacted by COVID-19 but recovering
An estimated 296 000 seizures of herbal cannabis and 217 000 seizures of cannabis resin were reported in the EU, Norway and Türkiye in 2021. Both of these figures are underestimates since no data are available for 2021 from countries that usually report large numbers of seizures, such as France and Germany. By comparison, the total number of cocaine seizures, the second largest drug market in Europe, was estimated at 71 000 in Europe that same year. This confirms that cannabis is, by a wide margin, Europe’s largest illicit drug market and the one that gives rise to most law-enforcement-related activity (EMCDDA and Europol, 2019).
Most reported seizures of cannabis resin (97 %) and herbal cannabis (83 %) in 2021 took place in just seven countries. These countries thus have a substantial impact on overall seizure trends in Europe. The country reporting the largest estimated number of herbal cannabis seizures in 2021 (49 %) as well as previous years was Spain (139 000), followed by Türkiye (52 500), Belgium (30 370) and Austria (11 400). Spain also reported 70 % of all cannabis resin seizures in 2021 (152 500), a steep rise compared to 2020 (42 000), although still below pre-COVID-19 levels (187 000 in 2019). Denmark (17 000), came a distant second followed by Sweden (14 000) and Türkiye (9 800). It is worth noting that some of Europe’s largest retail markets for cannabis resin appear to be located in three Nordic countries with comparatively small populations, namely Denmark, Norway and Sweden.
The impact of COVID-19 and related public order measures on the number of cannabis seizures recorded in the EU, Norway and Türkiye was particularly strong with regard to cannabis resin (see Section Cannabis trafficking and supply: record quantities seized in 2021). After nine years of relative stability, resin seizures dropped by 70 % between 2019 and 2020, while herbal seizures decreased by about 18 %. Although many more seizures occurred overall in Europe in 2021 than during the ‘COVID year’ of 2020, the numbers of seizures in Europe have not quite climbed back to pre-COVID levels (see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2011-2021).
Some of the overall reduction in cannabis seizures may be due to fewer police resources being focused on enforcing drug laws at the retail level in 2020, as officers were mobilised to enforce COVID-19 restrictions. In addition, prolonged lockdown periods likely drove many cannabis users and dealers out of public spaces. Meanwhile, the pandemic does not seem to have had a significant impact on levels of cannabis use in Europe (see Section Cannabis: in spite of COVID-19 several indicators point to overall stability in Europe’s largest drug market).
Trends in cannabis seizures in eastern EU Member States
By European standards, the 11 EU Member States located in eastern Europe have historically reported small numbers of seizures of herb and especially resin, representing a little less than 10 % (22 837) and 0.4 % (728) of total European herbal and resin seizures respectively in 2021. Although the use of herbal cannabis is fairly long-standing in these countries, the comparatively low prevalence of use in most countries and their generally smaller population sizes result in retail markets that are much smaller than those in the relatively more affluent and populated western and northern parts of Europe (see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, 2011-2021).
Note: The 11 countries are Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, representing altogether about 23 % of the EU population in 2021 (Eurostat, 2022). Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Trends in numbers of seizures of cannabis resin and herb in these 11 central and eastern European countries present a somewhat different picture from the rest of Europe, characterised by less stability and an overall increase for both products, at least until 2020. Overall, the number of seizures of herbal cannabis products in eastern Europe grew by 96 % between 2011 and 2019, before decreasing in 2020 and again in 2021, probably as a consequence of COVID-19 measures impacting on both the policing of retail drug markets and retail cannabis sales. A similar pattern can be observed in Europe as a whole. However, in the case of cannabis resin seizures, the pattern in the east of the EU differs markedly from the overall European picture, which shows numbers of resin seizures having risen back to nearly pre-pandemic levels in 2021. Indeed, resin seizures in eastern EU countries, although few in number, increased by 40 % during the 2011-2019 period but then dropped fairly sharply in 2020, and again in 2021 (see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2011-2021).
Overall, these trends seem to indicate that cannabis retail markets in the eastern part of the EU are growing, unlike those in most of the rest of Europe. However, the impact of COVID-19 in eastern Europe, particularly on resin, seems to be stronger and longer lasting than in the rest of the continent (see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, 2011-2021).
Trends in seizures of cannabis oil
Cannabis oil has long been a marginal product on European consumer markets, with the total number of European seizures rarely reaching more than 350 per year since reporting began in 2014. It is worth noting that the number of cannabis oil seizures in Europe increased by more than 200 % between 2015 and 2021, showing no discernible impact of COVID-19. In 2020 and 2021, cannabis oil seizures increased again, due mostly to rises in Sweden and Denmark (see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis oil in the EU, Türkiye and Norway, 2015-2021).
Between 2015 and 2021 all but four European countries reported at least one seizure of cannabis oil, with Spain reporting the largest aggregated number of seizures in the period (844), followed by Türkiye (442), Sweden (483), Austria (400) and Norway (357). These five countries may therefore be viewed as emerging retail markets for cannabis oil in Europe, although several other countries with high prevalence of cannabis use do not report seizures of oil. In addition, it should be noted that in 2021 Spain also reported the largest number of oil seizures, as well as the largest number of plants seized and the most seizures and quantities seized of both herbal cannabis and cannabis resin (see Figures Quantity of cannabis oil seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2015-2021; Quantity of cannabis plants seized in the EU, 2011-2021; Quantity of herbal cannabis seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021; and Quantity of cannabis resin seized in the EU, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2021).
These findings, together with an increase in the quantity of oil seized (see Section Cannabis trafficking and supply: record quantities seized in 2021), could indicate that cannabis oil is slowly gaining popularity among some European consumers.
Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Other cannabis consumer products: concentrates, edibles and vaping products
Some of the comparatively newer cannabis consumer products, such as butane hash oil (BHO), rosin or cannabis wax, that have become available in Europe in recent years (see Figure Cannabis: taxonomy of products traditional and modern) are probably manufactured by consumers themselves from their own cannabis crops or from herbal or resin material purchased from dealers. However, some of these products may also be the result of commercial manufacturing in Europe and elsewhere. For instance, there have been seizures of such products at European postal hubs and airports, in parcels and on flights from Canada and the United States. Some of these products have also been seized in the United States on their way to Europe. These seizures usually involve small amounts, weighing a few hundred grams or less, although larger quantities are seized occasionally. For instance, in 2021, a total of almost 58 kilograms of cannabis wax from the United States was seized in Germany. In 2022, some 4.5 kilograms of cannabis wax en route from Canada to Poland was seized in a single incident in the United States (RILO WE, 2023).
Other products such as edibles and e-cigarette liquids appear to have emerged in Europe more recently. They tend to be manufactured more professionally, often in third countries. The development of novel cannabis consumer products has been particularly dynamic and fast-paced in countries where cannabis has been regulated for recreational use, especially Canada and some parts of the United States. The range of cannabinoids in these new products is growing beyond the ‘traditional’ cannabinoids, for example delta-9-THC and CBD, and now includes cannabichromene (CBC) and semi-synthetic cannabinoids such as delta-8-THC, delta-10-THC, hexahydrocannabinol (HHC) and its acetate ester (HHC-O), among others (see Box Emergence of semi-synthetic cannabinoids: delta-8-THC, HHC and HHC-O). A broad range of products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids, such as HHC, are available from online shops in some EU countries.
Cannabis edibles are foods that are infused with cannabinoids (Barrus et al., 2016; Holt et al., 2022). They include sweets, such as ‘gummy bears’, but also chocolate, crisps, baked goods and drinks(see Photos Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in 2021). They can mimic popular brands of foods, particularly sweets and other snack products (see Photo Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in 2021 and Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises). Commercial edibles appear to have become increasingly popular in some North American jurisdictions following cannabis policy changes. While they are usually subject to strict regulations aimed at reducing the potential harms and risks associated with their use, counterfeit, unlicensed and illegal cannabis edibles have nevertheless appeared on North American cannabis markets (Health Canada, 2023).
In the 2020-2022 period, edibles infused with THC were seized in Europe on several occasions (see for instance Photo Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in 2021) (RILO WE, 2023) and poisonings related to their consumption have been reported. They are sold on darknet markets, through social media (see Section Online distribution of cannabis products) and at street level. Of particular concern are recent German federal police reports indicating an increase in the availability of THC-infused edibles, some of which are sold in packages mimicking branded sweets (see Boxes Edibles: increased risks of poisoning and Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises).
Based on the data currently available, it is difficult to estimate the size of the European market for cannabis edibles, or their manufacturing locations and trafficking routes. For instance, some edible products seized in Germany had been shipped from Canada, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland and the United States (German BKA communication to the EMCDDA). In particular, North America appears to be an important source. For instance, the World Customs Organization’s (WCO) CEN database, which contains records of seizures reported on a voluntary basis by its Member States, indicates that in the 2020-2022 period a minimum of 16 kilograms of edibles smuggled from Canada and 113 kilograms from the United States were seized in 210 incidents in 13 EU countries, the United States and Canada. Over the same period, almost 275 kilograms destined for the United Kingdom and 262 kilograms destined for Switzerland were shipped from or stopped in the United States (RILO WE, 2023).
E-liquids (liquids used in electronic vaping devices) containing concentrates of phytocannabinoids, semi-synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids appear to have become available and increasingly popular among European consumers over the past few years. Included in this category are products containing synthetic cannabinoids mis-sold as containing THC or CBD, which can pose a high risk of poisoning because of their high potency (EMCDDA, 2021b, 2022c) (see Box e-Liquids containing synthetic cannabinoids detected in France).
Similar to many other recently emerging cannabis consumer products, cannabis e-liquids and associated products were initially developed in North America, where they are now widely available and popular, particularly among young people (Lim et al., 2021; Meehan-Atrash and Rahman, 2021).
In the United States, in the summer of 2019, there was an outbreak of e-cigarette or vaping use-associated lung injury (EVALI) related to counterfeit products containing delta-9-THC, most probably due to contamination with vitamin E acetate. This outbreak resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people and thousands of hospitalisations across the country (CDC, 2020; Duffy et al., 2020). A review of vaping products available in the United States containing cannabinoid extracts, including delta-9-THC, CBD, delta-8-THC, delta-10-THC and HHC, concluded that many are likely to contain traces of heavy metals, solvents and other harmful chemicals, or that harmful substances may be generated when they are vaporised (see Box Emergence of semi-synthetic cannabinoids: delta-8-THC, HHC and HHC-O). However, insufficient information is available to adequately assess the potential toxicity of newer products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids (Meehan-Atrash and Rahman, 2021).
Low-THC vaping products (mostly based on CBD and, to a lesser extent, HHC) are offered for sale online, including on darknet markets (see Section Darknet markets and cannabis consumer product diversification) (see Box Low-THC cannabis adulterated with synthetic cannabinoids), and, in many EU countries, also in shops. There are indications that such products containing HHC, and to a lesser extent HHC-O, have been seized in a number of EU countries. Most of these appear to have been smuggled in from North America (see Box Seizures of cannabis liquids and oils destined for Europe). In addition, a large shipment of HHC extract (100 kilograms) was stopped in Switzerland in early February 2023 and placed under review by the authorities (RILO WE communication to the EMCDDA).
How cannabis products are retailed in Europe
Cannabis is bought, sold and traded in a variety of ways across Europe using both offline and online methods. Offline methods include the use of dealers in open, semi-open and closed settings. Open markets can be street-based markets (May and Hough, 2004; Skliamis and Korf, 2022) while semi-open markets are often located in clubs and other quasi-private settings (Tzanetakis, 2018). In closed markets business is conducted on a trust basis (Potter, 2009).
Online methods include purchases facilitated via the surface web, social media channels and the darknet. These could be considered semi-open settings, whereby no established relationship is usually required, but buyers have to subscribe or register with channels and platforms to gain access. In online methods, monetary transactions and deliveries may take place without any face-to-face contact, as is especially the case with purchases over the darknet. Sometimes, however, online methods simply facilitate the contact between buyers and sellers, for example via social media, and the exchange of money and drugs might still take place in person (Mounteney et al., 2016).
The role of social supply and sharing cannabis for free
Evidence indicates that cannabis is relatively frequently shared within peer groups, sometimes without any monetary exchange or in a non-commercial or non-profit manner. This is sometimes referred to as ‘social supply’ (Skliamis and Korf, 2022; Vuolo and Matias, 2022. Herbal cannabis can also be cultivated for one’s own supply, then shared or sold within peer social networks or to external buyers. This also extends to cannabis resin.
According to the 2021 European Web Survey on Drugs (EWSD) (3), 23 % of the 31 251 individuals who reported using herbal cannabis in the past 12 months stated that they usually obtained the drug for free (see Figure How do you usually obtain herbal cannabis (marijuana/weed/skunk)?). While the majority of respondents reported that they usually buy herbal cannabis (71 %), a small number reported generally growing it for their own use (4 %). These results were similar to those for cannabis resin (N = 10 651) (see Figure How do you usually obtain cannabis resin (hashish)?).
Similarly, a study among cannabis coffeeshop visitors in Amsterdam from seven different European countries (4), investigating how participants usually acquired cannabis in their home countries, found that, in the past 12 months, 75.8 % of respondents had bought cannabis, 21.2 % had obtained it for free and 5.3 % had cultivated their own (Skliamis and Korf, 2022).
While the social supply of cannabis seems to be relatively prevalent in the EU, research indicates that the sources from which users acquire their cannabis vary between countries. For example, the study found that out of the 929 visitors to coffeeshops in Amsterdam who reported buying their cannabis 46 % obtained it from friends, 32 % from street dealers and 30 % from home dealers (Skliamis and Korf, 2022). However, the proportion of participants who reported buying from friends and street dealers differed greatly between the seven countries included in the study. Notably, 90 % of respondents from the Netherlands reported coffeeshops as their supply source.
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Herbal cannabis and cannabis resin: EWSD data indicates that street deals remain the preferred method of purchase
Some 93 % of the 48 469 EWSD respondents reported having used cannabis in the past year, including about 11 000 who used cannabis resin and 32 000 who used herbal cannabis. Smaller numbers also reported using edibles (8 617) and cannabis oil (5 702). Some of these respondents provided detailed information enabling analysis of how herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are retailed in Europe.
Herbal cannabis: sources of acquisition and methods of delivery
The EWSD found that 84 % of the 23 415 respondents who answered questions related to how they usually bought herbal cannabis and how it was usually delivered to them purchased it directly from a dealer in-person, via phone, mail or text message (see Figure In the last 12 months, how did you usually buy herbal cannabis (marijuana/weed/skunk)?). However, about a fifth of respondents also reported using social media (10 %) and the darknet (9 %), while a smaller number reported using the surface web (2 %). This finding supports other research indicating the growth of internet-based methods for purchasing drugs (Barratt et al., 2016; Broséus et al., 2017; Mounteney et al., 2016; Tzanetakis, 2018).
However, the use of these methods appears to differ significantly between countries in Europe (Skliamis and Korf, 2022). In the EWSD sample, the proportion of respondents buying herbal cannabis directly from a dealer ranged from 94 % in Bulgaria to 76 % in Finland, Latvia and Sweden. Use of social media was reported by 22 % of those questioned in Ireland but by only 3 % in Slovakia and Spain, while the use of the darknet ranged from 33 % in Finland to 1 % in Austria, Greece and Spain. It should be noted that the results of the EWSD cannot readily be generalised to any larger populations.
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
In the case of herbal cannabis, four-fifths of respondents reported meeting their dealer outside as the usual delivery method, followed by home deliveries (22 %) (see Figure In the last 12 months, how was the herbal cannabis (marijuana/weed/skunk) usually delivered to you?). Significant differences among European countries were also apparent in the use of different delivery methods (see Table Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin).
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Cannabis resin: sources of acquisition and methods of delivery
At the aggregate level, for the 7 173 EWSD respondents reporting how they usually buy cannabis resin, and how it is delivered to them, the results are broadly similar to those of herbal cannabis (see Figures In the last 12 months, how did you usually buy cannabis resin (hashish)? and In the last 12 months, how was the cannabis resin (hashish) usually delivered to you?).
At the country-level, however, some differences are observable (see Table Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin). For example, the figures for those directly contacting a dealer ranged from 100 % and 96 % of respondents in Romania and Bulgaria, respectively, to 69 % in Finland. The proportion of those using social media to purchase cannabis resin ranged from 21 % in Ireland to 0 % in Cyprus and Romania, while the figures for respondents using the darknet ranged from 35 % in Finland to 0 % in Bulgaria, Greece and Romania.
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Delivery methods were shown by the EWSD to be fairly consistent between cannabis resin and herbal cannabis at the aggregate level (see Figure In the last 12 months, how was the cannabis resin (hashish) usually delivered to you?), although some national differences were also observed here (see Table Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin).
Source: EMCDDA, European Web Survey on Drugs, 2021. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. Number of respondents = 5 599. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
Indications of different retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin in the EU
As already indicated, a range of sources of acquisition and delivery methods are used for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin in Europe (see Tables Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin and Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin). The data appear to point to distinct retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, both in Europe as a whole and within individual countries, although caution is required when comparing these data, due to small sample sizes in some countries and also because of the relatively small sample size for resin. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that it is important to analyse the herbal cannabis and cannabis resin markets separately (Vuolo and Matias, 2022).
| Delivery method | Herbal (highest) | Resin (highest) | Herbal (lowest) | Resin (lowest) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Meet source/dealer outside |
Bulgaria (89 %) |
Bulgaria (93 %) |
Germany (67 %) |
Greece (62 %) |
|
Home (in-person) delivery |
Switzerland (29 %) |
Estonia* (32 %), Greece* (31 %), Austria, Switzerland (30 %) |
Czechia (11 %) |
Bulgaria*, Czechia* (10%), Latvia* (12 %), Poland (13%) |
|
Mail/postage |
Sweden (18 %) |
Ireland (17 %) |
Bulgaria (0 %) |
Bulgaria, Estonia (0 %) |
|
Pick up from arranged location |
Germany (15 %) |
Romania* (25 %), Cyprus* (19 %), Slovenia (18 %) |
Austria, Bulgaria (0 %) |
Bulgaria (0 %) |
| Source of acquisition | Herbal (highest) | Resin (highest) | Herbal (lowest) | Resin (lowest) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Directly contact source/dealer |
Bulgaria (94 %) |
Romania* (100 %), Bulgaria (97 %) |
Finland, Latvia, Sweden (76 %) |
Finland (69 %) |
|
Social media |
Ireland (22 %) |
Ireland (21 %) |
Slovakia, Spain (3 %) |
Cyprus (0 %) |
|
Darknet |
Finland (33 %) |
Finland (35 %) |
Austria, Greece, Spain (1 %) |
Bulgaria, Greece (0 %) |
|
Surface internet |
Cyprus, Czechia (5 %) |
Greece (8 %) |
Austria, Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Hungary (1 %) |
Bulgaria, Estonia, Switzerland (0 %) |
Online distribution of cannabis products
Darknet markets and cannabis consumer product diversification
Data from eight darknet markets gathered in 2021 (Cannazon, Alphabay, ASAP, Cypher, Dark0dereborn, Royal, Versus and World) showed a total of 13 269 unique listings (5) (sale offers) for cannabis products reported as being shipped from an EU country in 2021. To put this in context, while not directly comparable, in a similar scanning exercise conducted in 2020, 10 832 listings were found for cocaine and 1 362 for methamphetamine. While herbal cannabis and cannabis resin comprised the majority of listings (73 % and 23 % respectively), the cannabis darknet market carries an increasingly diverse set of products. This includes high-THC products such as concentrates (e.g., rosin, crumble, shatter) and edibles, which make up a small but noteworthy proportion of market listings (3 % and 1 % respectively). Edible products most commonly included fruit-flavoured ‘gummies’ but also other sweets and beverages, including syrups(see Section Other cannabis consumer products: concentrates, edibles and vaping products).
When all cannabis products were considered, the highest numbers of listings were reported as shipping from Germany (40 %), Spain (14 %), the Netherlands (12 %) and France (11 %). However, caution is needed in interpreting these data as neither the number of transactions nor the number of individual sellers can be extrapolated from the number of listings alone. Nonetheless, listings provide a useful indicator of the activity on darknet markets.
Herbal cannabis, the most prevalent product, was reported as shipping primarily from Germany (44 %), Spain (14 %), the Netherlands (11 %) and France (8 %). Multiple European countries were indicated as the shipping origin in 13 % of the listings, while 10 % of the listings offered shipping from other European countries (6) (see Figure Reported European shipping countries for herbal cannabis listings on major darknet markets, 2021).
* Multiple denotes where two or more European countries are mentioned as the shipping origin. Source: EMCDDA analysis based on Web-IQ data. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
The typical quantity (most frequently observed value) of herbal cannabis offered was 5 grams (1 779 listings), followed by 10 grams (1 497) and 1 gram (727). The typical price per gram was EUR 14 (in 74 listings of 1 gram). Listings of 10 grams and 5 grams were typically offered at EUR 10/gram (63 listings) and EUR 11/gram (220 listings), respectively, providing evidence of discounts for purchasing larger quantities (EUR 3-4/gram).
In 2021, 193 bulk listings of herbal cannabis were observed (see Table Quantity and price details of bulk herbal cannabis listings shipping from EU, 2021). Germany (40 %), Spain (20 %) and the Netherlands (18 %) accounted for the majority of these listings.
| Quantity (kg) | Number of listings | Typical price (EUR) | Price range (EUR) | Typical price per kg (EUR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
|
1 |
162 |
6 215 |
1 050-9 500 |
6 215 |
|
1.5 |
1 |
7 830 |
n/a |
5 220 |
|
2 |
6 |
9 460 |
4 120-9 800 |
4 730 |
|
3 |
9 |
13 970 |
11 975-13 970 |
4 658 |
|
5 |
15 |
25 895 |
13 000-26 261 |
5 179 |
Cannabis resin was reported as shipping primarily from Germany (26 %), France (21 %), the Netherlands (19 %) and Spain (13 %). Multiple European countries were indicated as the shipping origin in 17 % of the listings, while 5 % of the listings offered shipping from various other European countries (7) (see Figure Reported European shipping countries for cannabis resin listings on major darknet markets, 2021).
* Multiple denotes where two or more European countries are mentioned as the shipping origin.
Source: EMCDDA analysis based on Web-IQ data. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page.
The typical quantity of cannabis resin offered in 2021 was 5 grams (479), followed by 10 grams (450) and 1 gram (236). The typical price per gram was EUR 15 (in 20 listings of 1 gram). Listings of 10 grams and 5 grams were typically offered at EUR 8/gram (32 listings) and EUR 10/gram (67 listings), respectively, providing evidence of discounts for purchasing larger quantities (EUR 5-7/gram).
There were 64 bulk listings of cannabis resin observed in 2021. The Netherlands (32 %), Germany (20 %) and Spain (20 %) together accounted for the majority of such listings. Quantities between 1 and 3 kilograms were typically offered for between EUR 1 000/kilogram and EUR 4 950/kilogram. However, due to the limited price data available for analysis, caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings.
A small proportion of the listings on darknet markets in 2021 included cannabis concentrates and edibles. Germany (32 %) and Spain (27 %) dominated as the shipping origins for concentrates. Edible products appeared to be generally imported from North America for further redistribution within the EU, and were then typically shipped from Spain (31 %), France (22 %) and Germany (16 %).
Social media for cannabis sales and promotion of cannabis culture
Social media platforms are frequently used to promote and sell cannabis products (see forthcoming EU Drug Markets: Drivers and Facilitators, section on Social media and instant messaging apps). In a Spanish sample of 15- to 25-year-olds (N = 1 212), where cannabis was the drug most experimented with, 2 % reported buying cannabis and other drugs online, mostly through social media platforms (Oksanen et al., 2021). Cannabis products have been found to feature prominently on Facebook, where they represent the majority of the drug content advertised for sale, as seen in Denmark, Iceland and Sweden (Demant et al., 2019).
Overall, social media platforms appear to be frequently used to promote drug sales, sometimes using creative photo or video editing or other marketing techniques (Geoffroy, 2019; Paolini and Lepoivre, 2019; MCP, 2021; see also Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises).
Cannabis influencers, that is, individuals promoting cannabis products to their followers on social media platforms, have become particularly active on Instagram. While most cannabis influencers appear to be male, there are indications that female influencers are becoming more active on social media (Bakken and Harder, 2022). This may be part of a broader push towards commercialising cannabis and attempting to sell licensed and unlicensed products to a mainstream audience, in addition to influencing ongoing policy debates.
Estimating the size of the EU cannabis market
Estimating the size of illicit drug markets is inherently difficult and cannabis is no exception. Nevertheless, because cannabis is the drug most frequently used in Europe and its use generally has a higher level of social acceptance compared to other illicit drugs, there are comparatively more comprehensive and robust data relating to its use. These data enable a more accurate estimation of the size of the illicit market for cannabis. However, this market is becoming increasingly complex due to the emergence of new products, for which data are limited. Thus, any estimate of the size of the illicit cannabis market is restricted to herbal cannabis and cannabis resin.
Using the methodology established by the EMCDDA (2019b), it was estimated that cannabis products account for the largest share of the overall illicit drug retail market in the EU, with an estimated value in 2021 of at least EUR 11.4 billion (likely range: EUR 9.7 billion to EUR 13 billion). Out of this total, the illicit market for herbal cannabis was estimated to be worth at least EUR 8.8 billion (likely range: EUR 7.7 billion to EUR 9.8 billion), equivalent to about 1 028 tonnes. In comparison, the illicit cannabis resin market was estimated to be worth at least EUR 2.6 billion (likely range: EUR 2 billion to EUR 3.2 billion), equivalent to about 362 tonnes.
This estimate is based on the number of users and their patterns of use, the amount used per year and the average price paid at the retail level. This method, often called a demand-side approach, however, is prone to underestimation due to the misreporting and under-reporting of use (Udrisard et al., 2022).
The basic model used in the estimation process can be expressed in the following simple arithmetic form:
- total annual consumption (quantity) = number of last year users × amount used per year;
- annual market value (euros) = total annual consumption × price.
The estimated number of cannabis users was calculated based on prevalence data from general population surveys (GPS) and categorised according to frequency of use (see Box Links between frequency of use and sources of acquiring cannabis). In addition, a correction was made for any underestimation of cannabis use among high‐risk opioid users, which could be significant. Separate estimates were generated for cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, and, given the high numbers of cannabis users, it was possible to obtain information on the amounts of each product used by different types of users. Individuals were categorised into four different groups according to frequency of cannabis use, as follows:
- infrequent: used in the last year but not in the last month;
- occasional: use less than once a week or 1‐3 days in the last month;
- regular: use once up to several times a week or 4‐19 days in the last month; and,
- intensive: daily or almost daily use or 20+ days of use in the last month.
Data on the amounts used by the various types of users were compiled using complementary information from the European Web Survey on Drugs (EWSD). Taken together, these data were used to estimate the illicit retail market size for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin respectively.
There are limitations to this method. For example, for some variables where no data were available, it was necessary to impute values. This included instances when a country had no price data, in which case a simple average of the values for the other countries was used, and when prevalence data was not available for 2021, instead of which the latest available data were used. The full methodology, limitations and imputation procedures are described elsewhere (EMCDDA, 2019b).
National market size estimates
Occasionally, EU Member States construct their own market size estimates for drugs that are particularly relevant at the national level. For example, Czech authorities have developed an estimate for the market size of methamphetamine, the most prevalent synthetic stimulant used in the country.
According to recently published research by the French National Focal Point of the Reitox network (OFDT), the French illicit cannabis market is one of the largest in Europe, with nearly 5 million users (Le Nézet et al., 2022). Based on the latest available data, this illicit cannabis market had an estimated annual turnover of EUR 1.2 billion in 2017, an increase of around 72 % compared to 2010 (when the market turnover was estimated at EUR 700 million) (Spilka and Legleye, 2020). Such national estimates are useful to contextualise the overall EU estimate.
Discussion on estimating drug markets
In a literature review conducted for this analysis (Udrisard et al., 2022), only 21 studies were identified that attempted to formulate market size estimates for illicit drugs. Europe featured as a region of focus in two of the studies and nine of the studies looked at cannabis alone. The majority used a demand-side approach, while two employed a supply-side methodology (see Box Supply-side approaches to estimating the size of illicit drug markets), and three used a combination of both.
The other approaches used were based on wastewater analysis and on the so-called ‘forensic economic’ approach (see Box Forensic economic approach to estimating illicit cannabis market size). As already highlighted, estimating cannabis consumption using wastewater is challenging, and more research is needed in this area, which may improve the use of this method in the future (Causanilles et al., 2017). Ten of the studies employing the demand-side approach augmented user numbers by drawing on general population surveys and complementary sources to account for under-represented user populations. These include, for example, teenagers aged 15 and under, people with high-risk patterns of use, such as opioid users, or prisoners and homeless populations, all of whom may be excluded, to varying degrees, from GPS but can represent a significant number of cannabis users.
All of the demand-side attempts to estimate illicit drug market sizes suffer from under-reporting, whereby people report no use or less frequent use, or do not respond to a representative survey, such as a GPS. In an American survey focused on cannabis, the researchers estimated that about 25 % of past-month cannabis users were missed due to non-response factors (Kilmer et al., 2011). Among the 15 papers using survey data, seven applied correction factors for under-reporting in order to provide new prevalence rates (Udrisard et al., 2022). In the reviewed papers, rates of up to 50 % were used to correct the initial estimates of the number of users or to suggest alternative scenarios.
Data on quantities used also present issues that require a degree of interpretation and making assumptions. For example, while two studies asked questions about how many cannabis joints were smoked, neither asked about the typical amount of cannabis contained in one joint. To fill such data gaps, information on quantities used can be collected via non-representative surveys that specifically target people who use drugs. This is the basis for using data from the European Web Survey on Drugs to develop an EU-level estimate of the illicit cannabis market.
It is notable that while some studies considered the issue of cannabis sharing and how this impacted on their market size estimates, it was concluded that there was no real evidence of a global overestimation. While estimates were not revised to account for this potential issue, researchers have strongly recommended further research in this area (Udrisard et al., 2022).
The study conducted for estimating the size of illicit drug markets in the EU concluded that there remains a strong suspicion that demand-based estimates, especially for the drugs most used in Europe, underestimate the real size of these markets (Udrisard et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the expert consultation that was part of the study confirmed that there are very few alternatives to demand-based approaches for drug market estimates. Overall, further research is needed in this area.
(1) Where price or potency data were not available for a given single year between 2015 and 2021, these were imputed by using the mid-point between available values or by carrying over the last value available, as applicable; where national data were missing for two years or more, the country was excluded from analysis.
(2) Where price or potency data were not available for a given single year between 2015 and 2021, these were imputed by using the mid-point between available values or by carrying over the last value available, as applicable; where national data were missing for two years or more, the country was excluded from analysis.
(3) The 2021 round of the EWSD covered 21 EU countries and Switzerland. Further information is available online. The 2021 EWSD round also included partner countries from the Western Balkans (Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia) and the European Neighbourhood Policy area (Georgia, Lebanon, Ukraine) through the Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA7) and EU4Monitoring Drugs (EU4MD) project. However, respondents from these partner countries are not included in the analysis presented in this report.
(4) France, Greece, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and the United Kingdom. N = 1 225.
(5) Alphabay (695), ASAP (152), Cannazon (5 212), Cypher (49), Dark0dereborn (970), Royal (354), Versus (1 071) and World (4 766).
(6) Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sweden and Türkiye.
(7) Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Italy, Norway and Poland.
Source data
| Year | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EUR/g | 60.414562 | 59.19029858 | 50.55327682 | 57.52965897 | 44.57809312 | 45.51463326 | 45.16963 |
| Year | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EUR/g | 132.2591501 | 109.8109636 | 104.353979 | 95.87571161 | 92.75474683 | 96.34599331 | 105.3277 |
| Year | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resin (THC %) | 100 | 126 | 137 | 151 | 157 | 169 | 177 | 194 | 224 | 227 | 291 |
| Herbal (THC %) | 100 | 105 | 126 | 131 | 126 | 128 | 135 | 129 | 128 | 133 | 157 |
| Resin (price EUR) | 100 | 101 | 99 | 101 | 101 | 109 | 108 | 102 | 100 | 109 | 103 |
| Herbal (price EUR) | 100 | 99 | 97 | 99 | 101 | 100 | 103 | 101 | 96 | 96 | 94 |
| Year | Metabolite | Site ID | Country | City | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | Saturday | Sunday | Monday | Tuesday | Weekday mean | Weekend mean | Daily mean | Latitude | Longitude | Location | City | Country: City |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2022 | cannabis | AT001 | AT | Graz | 69.31 | 59.09 | 75.89 | 55.2 | 50.19 | 54.96 | 57 | 61.8 | 59.06 | 60.24 | 47.070713 | 15.439504 | ARA Graz | Graz | AT: Graz |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT002 | AT | Hall-Wattens | 43.23 | 45.2 | 43.92 | 43.92 | 44.48 | 52.04 | 45.14 | 44.52 | 46.09 | 45.42 | 47.29168 | 11.59284 | Abwasserverband Hall in Tirol-Fritzens | Hall-Wattens | AT: Hall-Wattens |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT004 | AT | Innsbruck | 77.87 | 74.53 | 83.46 | 91.04 | 82.65 | 91.1 | 84.61 | 79 | 87.06 | 83.61 | 47.269212 | 11.404102 | ARA-Innsbruck | Innsbruck | AT: Innsbruck |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT005 | AT | Kapfenberg | 18.43 | 17.59 | 21.95 | 14.88 | 13.2 | 34.91 | 28.83 | 21.61 | 21.23 | 21.4 | 47.443562 | 15.2901 | Kläranlage Kapfenberg | Kapfenberg | AT: Kapfenberg |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT006 | AT | Klagenfurt | 51.93 | 51.89 | 63.03 | 50.94 | 53.11 | 66.74 | 53.79 | 52.53 | 58.46 | 55.92 | 46.6357 | 14.311817 | N/A | Klagenfurt | AT: Klagenfurt |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT008 | AT | Knittelfeld | 43.28 | 93.2 | 52.96 | 38.57 | 50.67 | 45.26 | 43.77 | 60.08 | 46.86 | 52.53 | 47.21595 | 14.82719 | N/A | Knittelfeld | AT: Knittelfeld |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT009 | AT | Korneuburg | 61.56 | 51.31 | 46.31 | 90.98 | 49.46 | 53.64 | 41.07 | 51.31 | 60.1 | 56.33 | 48.34472 | 16.33149 | N/A | Korneuburg | AT: Korneuburg |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT010 | AT | Kufstein | 99.72 | 96.97 | 109.35 | 110.68 | 109.35 | 109.63 | 96.06 | 97.58 | 109.75 | 104.54 | 47.582958 | 12.17077 | Abwasserverband Kufstein | Kufstein | AT: Kufstein |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT013 | AT | Purgstall | 34.75 | 28.37 | 29.61 | 36.13 | 26.1 | 23.58 | 31.76 | 31.63 | 28.85 | 30.04 | 48.057812 | 15.13545 | GAV Erlauftal | Purgstall | AT: Purgstall |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT011 | AT | Region Millstättersee | 44.24 | 43.71 | 40.85 | 48.34 | 60.77 | 48.08 | 44.2 | 44.05 | 49.51 | 47.17 | 46.81924 | 13.52146 | Wasserverband Millstaettersee | Region Millstättersee | AT: Region Millstättersee |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT014 | AT | Salzburg | 51.39 | 49.66 | 86.58 | 46.17 | 46.44 | 66.14 | 61.05 | 54.03 | 61.33 | 58.2 | 47.811195 | 13.033229 | N/A | Salzburg | AT: Salzburg |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT015 | AT | Steyr | 57.66 | 47.7 | 65.95 | 107.58 | 78.36 | 67.86 | 72.92 | 59.43 | 79.94 | 71.15 | 48.05009 | 14.41827 | N/A | Steyr | AT: Steyr |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT016 | AT | Strass im Zillertal | 33.41 | 30.54 | 31.01 | 38.59 | 31.02 | 37.71 | 36.25 | 33.4 | 34.58 | 34.07 | 47.395748 | 11.82211 | AIZ Abwasserverband | Strass im Zillertal | AT: Strass im Zillertal |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT003 | AT | Wasserverband Hofsteig | 47.76 | 50.68 | 57.82 | 46.15 | 45.99 | 60.01 | 45.52 | 47.99 | 52.49 | 50.56 | 47.4852 | 9.6762 | ARA Hofsteig | Wasserverband Hofsteig | AT: Wasserverband Hofsteig |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT017 | AT | Wien | 74 | 85.62 | 93.73 | 73.2 | 80.47 | 91.03 | 83.84 | 81.15 | 84.6 | 83.12 | 48.210033 | 16.363449 | N/A | Wien | AT: Wien |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT018 | AT | Wiener Neustadt | 73.26 | 83.72 | 66.1 | 58.24 | 59.13 | 69.03 | 58.27 | 71.75 | 63.13 | 66.82 | 47.80279 | 16.23318 | N/A | Wiener Neustadt | AT: Wiener Neustadt |
| 2022 | cannabis | AT019 | AT | Wildon | 51.24 | 48.71 | 49.55 | 44.75 | 48.54 | 43.81 | 49.01 | 49.65 | 46.66 | 47.94 | 46.885708 | 15.518532 | N/A | Wildon | AT: Wildon |
| 2022 | cannabis | CH001 | CH | Basel | 148.51 | 127.95 | 129.56 | 161.14 | 130.97 | 132.79 | 96.2 | 124.22 | 138.62 | 132.45 | 47.56 | 7.59 | ARA Basel | Basel | CH: Basel |
| 2022 | cannabis | CH002 | CH | Berne | 119.58 | 103.3 | 130.42 | 82.29 | 95.82 | 114.17 | 125.56 | 116.14 | 105.68 | 110.16 | 46.83 | 7.62 | ARA Bern | Berne | CH: Berne |
| 2022 | cannabis | CH003 | CH | Geneva | 217.59 | 138.38 | 209.45 | 214.44 | 165.11 | 179.09 | 141.6 | 165.86 | 192.02 | 180.81 | 46.2 | 6.17 | STEP SIG | Geneva | CH: Geneva |
| 2022 | cannabis | CH008 | CH | Zurich | 172.64 | 124.28 | 118.03 | 113.05 | 126.57 | 149.18 | 123.94 | 140.29 | 126.71 | 132.53 | 47.37 | 8.51 | Werdhölzli | Zurich | CH: Zurich |
| 2022 | cannabis | CZ001 | CZ | Brno | 44.79 | 46.64 | 37.29 | 46.48 | 49.6 | 54.69 | 68.4 | 53.28 | 47.02 | 49.7 | 49.19506 | 16.606837 | Waterworks and sewage of city Brno | Brno | CZ: Brno |
| 2022 | cannabis | CZ002 | CZ | České Budějovice | 116.36 | 81.27 | 134.45 | 52.72 | 92.07 | 122.4 | 123.3 | 106.98 | 100.41 | 103.22 | 48.96 | 14.46 | UCOV CB | České Budějovice | CZ: České Budějovice |
| 2022 | cannabis | CZ003 | CZ | Karlovy Vary | 149.03 | 134.03 | 81.33 | 184.21 | 100.53 | 105.56 | 95.2 | 126.09 | 117.91 | 121.41 | 50.23204 | 12.87099 | COV Karloy Vary | Karlovy Vary | CZ: Karlovy Vary |
| 2022 | cannabis | CZ004 | CZ | Ostrava | 70.08 | 77.38 | 74.8 | 93.97 | 69.77 | 71.48 | 72.98 | 79.51 | 76.25 | 49.833864 | 18.281034 | UCOV Ostrava | Ostrava | CZ: Ostrava | |
| 2022 | cannabis | CZ005 | CZ | Prague (2) | 109.53 | 116.09 | 73.22 | 120.59 | 146.88 | 133.91 | 86.41 | 104.01 | 118.65 | 112.38 | 50.08 | 14.43 | UCOV Praha | Prague (2) | CZ: Prague (2) |
| 2022 | cannabis | EE001 | EE | Kohtla-Järve (2) | 58.45 | 46 | 27.39 | 29.61 | 33.65 | 44.02 | 96.19 | 66.88 | 33.67 | 47.9 | 59.397474 | 27.279751 | N/A | Kohtla-Järve (2) | EE: Kohtla-Järve (2) |
| 2022 | cannabis | EE005 | EE | Tallinn | 75.52 | 63.44 | 42.95 | 27.93 | 57.68 | 65.82 | 64.53 | 67.83 | 48.59 | 56.84 | 59.436962 | 24.753574 | N/A | Tallinn | EE: Tallinn |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES001 | ES | Barcelona | 220.15 | 149.21 | 114.96 | 123.6 | 149.53 | 115.99 | 184.3 | 184.55 | 126.02 | 151.1 | 41.43 | 1.97 | Baix Llobregat | Barcelona | ES: Barcelona |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES002 | ES | Castellon | 46.08 | 54.31 | 58.77 | 51.12 | 45.47 | 69.67 | 56.29 | 52.23 | 56.26 | 54.53 | 40.23 | -0.12 | EDAR Castellón | Castellon | ES: Castellon |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES003 | ES | Lleida | 83.58 | 92.25 | 104.61 | 89.27 | 74.57 | 84.16 | 96.26 | 90.7 | 88.15 | 89.24 | 41.617592 | 0.620015 | N/A | Lleida | ES: Lleida |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES006 | ES | Santiago | 57.32 | 80.52 | 109.1 | 95.75 | 84.78 | 102.23 | 119.94 | 85.93 | 97.97 | 92.81 | 42.88 | -8.54 | Silvouta | Santiago | ES: Santiago |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES007 | ES | Tarragona | 64.77 | 107.95 | 76.97 | 72.7 | 77.63 | 114.88 | 99.02 | 90.58 | 85.55 | 87.71 | 41.1190145116416 | 1.24570728603803 | Tarragona | Tarragona | ES: Tarragona |
| 2022 | cannabis | ES008 | ES | Valencia (3) | 89.16 | 76.99 | 94.23 | 83.04 | 71.8 | 146.64 | 95.7 | 87.28 | 98.93 | 93.94 | 39.46 | -0.33 | Valencia 3 plants | Valencia (3) | ES: Valencia (3) |
| 2022 | cannabis | GB001 | GB | Bristol | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 51.503457 | -2.698444 | Avonmouth | Bristol | GB: Bristol | ||||||
| 2022 | cannabis | HR001 | HR | Zagreb | 107.71 | 72.14 | 131.07 | 81.19 | 77.95 | 90.5 | 113.84 | 97.9 | 95.18 | 96.34 | 45.7929993 | 15.9463997 | Central wastewater treatment plant of the city of Zagreb | Zagreb | HR: Zagreb |
| 2022 | cannabis | IS002 | IS | Reykjavik Klettagarðar | 105.3 | 106.67 | 119.6 | 99.95 | 110.27 | 129.94 | 179.7 | 130.56 | 114.94 | 121.63 | 64.126521 | -21.817439 | Klettagarðar | Reykjavik Klettagarðar | IS: Reykjavik Klettagarðar |
| 2022 | cannabis | IT001 | IT | Bozen | 39.35 | 45.57 | 44.39 | 44.6 | 43.94 | 44.41 | 41.85 | 42.26 | 44.34 | 43.44 | 46.49672 | 11.358 | Kläranlage Bozen | Bozen | IT: Bozen |
| 2022 | cannabis | IT002 | IT | Milan | 52.59 | 55.97 | 55.25 | 53.77 | 37.81 | 62.61 | 55.34 | 54.63 | 52.36 | 53.33 | 45.4337997 | 9.2213602 | Nosedo | Milan | IT: Milan |
| 2022 | cannabis | NL001 | NL | Amsterdam | 161.47 | 174.45 | 184.1 | 177.78 | 145.69 | 153.76 | 188.46 | 174.8 | 165.33 | 169.39 | 52.375 | 4.8666668 | RWZI Amsterdam-WEST | Amsterdam | NL: Amsterdam |
| 2022 | cannabis | NL002 | NL | Eindhoven | 90.69 | 75.19 | 104.88 | 90.01 | 90.98 | 108.27 | 128.16 | 98.01 | 98.53 | 98.31 | 51.4421082 | 5.4800701 | RWZI Eindhoven | Eindhoven | NL: Eindhoven |
| 2022 | cannabis | NL005 | NL | Utrecht | 79.71 | 93.28 | 109.75 | 76.15 | 93.74 | 122.6 | 121.67 | 98.22 | 100.56 | 99.56 | 52.0858002 | 5.1308398 | RWZI Utrecht | Utrecht | NL: Utrecht |
| 2022 | cannabis | PL003 | PL | Krakow P | 27.27 | 68.07 | 49.32 | 42 | 40.18 | 56.12 | 39.24 | 44.86 | 46.91 | 46.03 | 50.06 | 19.94 | Krakow Plaszow | Krakow P | PL: Krakow P |
| 2022 | cannabis | PT001 | PT | Almada | 154.89 | 150.74 | 134.62 | 138.46 | 89.5 | 116.77 | 153.02 | 152.88 | 119.84 | 134 | 38.675187 | -9.154345 | Mutela | Almada | PT: Almada |
| 2022 | cannabis | PT002 | PT | Lisbon | 132.89 | 141.76 | 128.94 | 124.58 | 112.36 | 163.89 | 104.93 | 126.52 | 132.44 | 129.91 | 38.7044907 | -9.1754999 | Alcântara | Lisbon | PT: Lisbon |
| 2022 | cannabis | PT003 | PT | Porto | 61.97 | 71.62 | 54.4 | 34.09 | 90.44 | 66.64 | 69.69 | 67.76 | 61.39 | 64.12 | 41.157944 | -8.629105 | N/A | Porto | PT: Porto |
| 2022 | cannabis | SE001 | SE | Gävle | 63.77 | 45.54 | 56.59 | 50.31 | 51.02 | 65.32 | 55.78 | 55.03 | 55.81 | 55.48 | 60.674622 | 17.14183 | Duvbacken | Gävle | SE: Gävle |
| 2022 | cannabis | SE003 | SE | Sandviken | 34.54 | 46.47 | 26.26 | 27.47 | 25.72 | 25.15 | 29.85 | 31.48 | 30.94 | 60.61667 | 16.76667 | Hedåsen ARV | Sandviken | SE: Sandviken | |
| 2022 | cannabis | SE009 | SE | Växjö | 29.36 | 17.07 | 14.56 | 21.75 | 21.06 | 25.31 | 35.75 | 27.4 | 20.67 | 23.55 | 56.858257 | 14.761215 | N/A | Växjö | SE: Växjö |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI001 | SI | Domžale-Kamnik | 54.37 | 55.97 | 51.9 | 52.58 | 55.12 | 60.6 | 58.57 | 56.3 | 55.05 | 55.59 | 46.13788 | 14.59384 | Domžale-Kamnik | Domžale-Kamnik | SI: Domžale-Kamnik |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI002 | SI | Koper | 67.05 | 86.21 | 72.69 | 85.83 | 92 | 74 | 96.23 | 83.16 | 81.13 | 82 | 45.548058 | 13.730188 | Central wastewater treatment plant Koper | Koper | SI: Koper |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI003 | SI | Kranj | 36.12 | 50.4 | 36.98 | 37.71 | 30.52 | 39.67 | 34.68 | 40.4 | 36.22 | 38.01 | 46.242834 | 14.355542 | N/A | Kranj | SI: Kranj |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI004 | SI | Ljubljana | 77.36 | 77.56 | 79.11 | 78.71 | 76.72 | 91.5 | 78.7 | 77.87 | 81.51 | 79.95 | 46.056947 | 14.505751 | Central wastewater treatment plant Ljubljana | Ljubljana | SI: Ljubljana |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI005 | SI | Maribor | 57.48 | 56.1 | 59.36 | 98.59 | 48.07 | 52.16 | 59.57 | 57.72 | 64.54 | 61.62 | 46.55734 | 15.64591 | Maribor | Maribor | SI: Maribor |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI006 | SI | Novo mesto | 66.14 | 52.72 | 53.55 | 53.71 | 53.53 | 58.63 | 63.92 | 60.93 | 54.85 | 57.46 | 45.804211 | 15.16969 | Wastewater treatment plant Novo mesto | Novo mesto | SI: Novo mesto |
| 2022 | cannabis | SI007 | SI | Velenje | 90.82 | 80.79 | 71.36 | 80.61 | 43.85 | 67.2 | 71.88 | 81.17 | 65.75 | 72.36 | 46.362274 | 15.110658 | Central wastewater treatment plant Šaleške Doline (Šalek Valley) | Velenje | SI: Velenje |
| 2022 | cannabis | SK002 | SK | Bratislava C | 34.58 | 56.98 | 32.18 | 43.21 | 43.36 | 44.9 | 36.27 | 42.61 | 40.91 | 41.64 | 48.14925 | 17.106991 | Central | Bratislava C | SK: Bratislava C |
| 2022 | cannabis | SK004 | SK | Piestany | 6.84 | 48.21 | 7.48 | 43.47 | 31.04 | 28.6 | 21.41 | 25.49 | 27.65 | 26.72 | 48.5918007 | 17.8019009 | N/A | Piestany | SK: Piestany |
| 2022 | cannabis | TR003 | TR | Istanbul (II-VII) | 24.73 | 25.35 | 17.64 | 20.43 | 23.66 | 25.46 | 23.07 | 24.38 | 21.8 | 22.91 | 41.013 | 28.9748 | Istanbul (II-VII) | Istanbul (II-VII) | TR: Istanbul (II-VII) |
| Country | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | 15097 | 13633 | 15895 | 15895 | 16594 | 16804 |
| Spain | 9278 | 9122 | 9485 | 10372 | 7334 | 7334 |
| Italy | 6394 | 6483 | 5217 | 4880 | 4257 | 4213 |
| France | 11601 | 9828 | 9868 | 8934 | 6504 | 6504 |
| Other | 14427 | 15346 | 16357 | 15923 | 12995 | 13320 |
| 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resin (EU) | 100 | 92 | 92 | 88 | 88 | 93 | 92 | 94 | 101 | 27 | 63 |
| Resin (EU+2) | 100 | 92 | 92 | 88 | 88 | 93 | 92 | 95 | 100 | 30 | 64 |
| Herbal (EU) | 100 | 118 | 121 | 130 | 120 | 112 | 119 | 109 | 112 | 94 | 90 |
| Herbal (EU+2) | 100 | 121 | 124 | 126 | 113 | 106 | 116 | 110 | 117 | 96 | 95 |
| 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resin (7 countries) | 100 | 91 | 92 | 88 | 88 | 92 | 89 | 97 | 103 | 40 | 87 |
| Herbal (7 countries) | 100 | 112 | 126 | 123 | 106 | 108 | 112 | 111 | 118 | 109 | 110 |
| Year | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resin (11 countries) | 100 | 97 | 92 | 89 | 143 | 130 | 114 | 122 | 140 | 77 | 72 |
| Herbal (11 countries) | 100 | 103 | 110 | 158 | 133 | 167 | 194 | 199 | 196 | 170 | 166 |
| Year | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EU | 100 | 164 | 147 | 142 | 151 | 143 | 330 |
| EU+2 | 100 | 401 | 147 | 113 | 125 | 173 | 263 |
| Source | % respondents |
|---|---|
| Mostly I buy it | 71 |
| Mostly I get it for free | 23 |
| Mostly I produce it myself | 4 |
| Other | 3 |
| Source | % respondents |
|---|---|
| Mostly I buy it | 72 |
| Mostly I get it for free | 22 |
| Mostly I produce it myself | 4 |
| Other | 3 |
| Source | % respondents |
|---|---|
| I directly contact my source/dealer (in person, via phone, mail, or text message) | 84 |
| I find the source on social media (such as Snapchat, Facebook, or Instagram) | 10 |
| On an encrypted internet market/darknet (e.g. using Tor or another browser) | 9 |
| Other | 8 |
| In a shop on surface internet | 2 |
| Delivery method | % respondents |
|---|---|
| I met my source/dealer outside | 80 |
| Home (in person) delivery | 22 |
| I picked it up without any personal contact (from arranged location) | 7 |
| Regular mail/postage | 6 |
| Other | 5 |
| Source | % respondents |
|---|---|
| I directly contact my source/dealer (in person, via phone, mail, or text message) | 83 |
| I find the source on social media (such as Snapchat, Facebook, or Instagram) | 11 |
| On an encrypted internet market/darknet (e.g. using Tor or another browser) | 10 |
| Other | 8 |
| In a shop on surface internet | 2 |
| Delivery method | % respondents |
|---|---|
| I met my source/dealer outside | 79 |
| Home (in person) delivery | 22 |
| I picked it up without any personal contact (from arranged location) | 9 |
| Regular mail/postage | 8 |
| Other | 5 |
| Country | % |
|---|---|
| Germany | 44 |
| Spain | 14 |
| Netherlands | 11 |
| France | 8 |
| Multiple * | 13 |
| Other European countries | 10 |
| Country | % |
|---|---|
| Germany | 26 |
| France | 21 |
| Netherlands | 19 |
| Spain | 13 |
| Multiple * | 17 |
| Other European countries | 5 |
References
Consult the list of references used in this module.